中国历史之唐朝

唐朝（618年—907年），
是中國歷史上最重要的朝代之一，因皇室姓李，故又稱李唐。唐朝是公認的中國史上最興盛的時代之一，往往與漢朝並稱「漢唐」。唐王李淵於618年逼隋恭帝禪位，推翻隋朝，改國號為唐（尊稱大唐[3]），建立了唐朝，以長安（今陝西西安）為京城（後稱西京、中京、上都），作為首都，後又設洛陽為東都（後稱東京），太原為北都（後稱北京），作為陪都，與長安合稱「三都」，之後又陸續建立了一些陪都如成都、鳳翔、江陵等，但很快取消。其鼎盛時期的公元7世紀時，中亞的綠洲地帶也受唐支配。690年，武則天改國號為周，遷都神都（洛陽），史稱武周，一直到705年唐中宗再次繼位才恢復「唐」這一國號，把首都遷回長安。唐朝的國力在唐玄宗開元年間達到巔峰，但在天寶十四年（755年）爆發的安史之亂是轉折點，其後，國力迅速衰落，唐末民變後帝國中央政府實際權力被梁王朱全忠控制，首都遷往洛陽，907年朱全忠逼唐哀帝禪位，唐朝遂亡，被朱全忠所建立的新王朝——後梁所取代，開始了五代十國時期。唐朝共延續了289年，傳了22位皇帝（包括武則天）。唐帝國在文化、政治、經濟、外交等方面都有輝煌的成就，是當時世界上最強大的國家之一。當時的東亞鄰國如新羅、渤海國和日本等國的政治體制、文化等方面都受到了唐朝的很大影響。

「唐」這國號是晉的古名，泛指今山西省的中心地域。傳說君主堯號稱「陶唐」氏。周朝時在現今湖北省有一小國唐國，是周成王之弟叔虞的封國。西魏時，李虎為八柱國之一，封隴西郡公，其子李昞後來晉封唐國公。573年，李昞之子李淵繼承唐國公爵位，後晉升唐王；在隋恭帝禪讓帝位後便以唐為國號。唐朝滅亡後，五代的李存勖所建的後唐和十國的南唐都自稱是唐朝的承繼者而用「唐」作為國號。南唐的建國者自稱是唐憲宗之子建王李恪之後。後唐皇室則因祖先建立軍功而受賜姓李。
唐朝皇室李氏自稱出自漢族的隴西李氏，且《舊唐書》和《新唐書》中則稱唐朝皇族李氏是老子李耳的子孫，十六國的西涼開國君主李暠亦是其遠祖，但這一說法被普遍置疑。現代學者陳寅恪考證則認為李唐是趙郡李氏之後。隴西李氏從秦代開始就是中國著名的武將軍人世家，這個家族湧現過漢朝飛將軍李廣等著名將軍，而到南北朝門閥制度興起之時，被列為漢族大姓，和趙郡李氏一起屬於門第最高的家族之一。北周時推行鮮卑化政策，李氏被迫改成「大野氏」，這是一個新創立的姓氏。北周滅亡後，又恢復為李氏。
唐朝連同之前的隋朝和之後的五代、宋朝被歷史學者黃仁宇等認為是相繼於秦、漢（稱中華第一帝國）之後的第二帝國時期，日本歷史學者則普遍認為唐朝是中國「中世」時期的結束。唐朝國力在中國歷史上數一數二，因此華人也被稱為「唐人」，現今西方華人的聚居處也稱「唐人街」。
目錄 [隐藏]
1 政治演變過程
1.1 李淵開國
1.2 貞觀之治
1.3 日月當空
1.4 韋氏當權
1.5 開元之治
1.6 安史之亂
1.7 藩鎮宦官
1.8 永貞元和
1.9 甘露牛李
1.10 大中暫治
1.11 殘唐而亡
2 疆域
3 行政區劃
4 唐朝人口
5 政治體制
6 唐朝經濟
6.1 農業
6.2 手工業
6.3 商業與交通
6.4 土地與賦稅制度
7 軍事
8 文化藝術和宗教
9 外交
10 帝王年表
11 參看
12 參考資料
12.1 注釋
13 外部連結


[ 政治演變過程
[ 李淵開國

唐高祖李淵隋朝末年，由於隋煬帝的失道離德和三征高句麗失敗，民變在各地興起不止（參看隋末農民戰爭）。
大業十三年（617年）五月，太原留守、唐國公李淵在晉陽（今山西太原）起兵，十一月攻下隋京大興城，擁立楊侑為帝，改元義寧，是為隋恭帝。遙尊煬帝為太上皇。
李淵的母親是隋煬帝母親獨孤皇后、北周明帝皇后的姊妹，故在歷朝受重用。他見天下大亂，故起兵反隋。他攻入大興府以後，自任大丞相，進封唐王。大業十四年（618年）三月，隋煬帝在江都被殺。同年五月，李淵逼恭帝禪讓，自己稱帝，國號唐，是為唐高祖。改元武德，都城仍定在大興城，並改名為長安。封嫡長子李建成為太子、嫡次子李世民為秦王、嫡三子李元霸早夭、嫡四子李元吉為齊王。唐朝建立後，李淵派李建成、李世民、平陽公主等子女一一征討四方，剿滅各方群雄。在掃平群雄後，太子李建成與秦王李世民起衝突，武德九年（626年）六月初四，秦王李世民發動玄武門之變，李建成和李元吉被殺，李淵見狀於是宣佈退位，成為太上皇，李世民即位，即唐太宗。

[ 貞觀之治
主條目：貞觀之治
唐太宗即位後，勵精圖治，納諫如流。對外方面，太宗時期將原為突厥所支配的蒙古高原納入勢力範圍，唐朝北方的諸民族專稱李世民爲天可汗。唐太宗派文成公主與吐蕃贊普松贊干布通婚，穩定了唐蕃兩國的關係。在內政方面，唐太宗又推行均田制、實行租庸調制。在職官制度上，則承繼了秦漢以來的宰相制度，發展並完善了隋朝所開創的三省六部和科舉選士制，為後世所效仿。唐太宗不計出身，網羅了一大批精明強幹的大臣，比如房玄齡、杜如晦、長孫無忌、魏徵、馬周、高士廉和蕭瑀等文臣，尉遲敬德、李靖、侯君集、程知節、李勣和秦叔寶等武將。這時期社會秩序安定，經濟繁榮，歷史上稱為「貞觀之治」。《資治通鑒》記載，貞觀四年（630年）一斗米不過三、四錢，全年死刑犯僅廿九人。其政績的總結《貞觀政要》成爲日本和朝鮮的帝王教科書，亦為後世君主模彷學習的對象。

[ 日月當空
唐太宗晚年，因為皇太子的問題而煩惱，三個嫡子當中，太子李承乾與魏王李泰內鬥，使得太宗廢掉太子李承乾，冷落魏王李泰，改立嫡三子晉王李治為太子。唐太宗死後，李治即位，是為唐高宗。
唐高宗在太宗晚年，結識了唐太宗的才人武媚娘，在太宗死後，武氏出家為尼。時高宗的王皇后與蕭淑妃內鬥，准許高宗接武氏回宮。武氏入宮後，先後使高宗廢了王皇后及蕭淑妃，並不顧眾多大臣的反對，立武氏為皇后。
高宗健康狀況不好，自顯慶（656年）以後，許多政事都交給皇后武媚娘來處理。武后實際成為唐帝國的最高統治者，與高宗並稱「二聖」，加尊號為「天后」。在武后輔佐高宗的時期，對外消滅西突厥，使大唐帝國的疆域達到極盛；接受了新羅之請，終於滅了高句麗和百濟並打敗日本援軍（見白村江之戰），助新羅統一朝鮮半島，而唐也在朝鮮半島北部設立安東都護府，恢復自漢末失去的領土。在內政上，唐高宗注重民生疾苦，也為一名明主。

中國歷史上唯一的女皇帝——武則天高宗死後不久，武后成為皇太后，立太子李顯為帝，是為唐中宗。不久又廢中宗為廬陵王，改立另一個兒子李旦為帝，是為唐睿宗。平定了徐敬業領導的反叛後，武太后在天授元年（690年）廢睿宗帝號，自己稱帝，改國號為周，遷都洛陽（稱神都），稱「聖神皇帝」，改立李旦為皇嗣。武氏也成為了中國歷史上唯一成為皇帝的女人，從高宗後期算起，武氏前後掌權50餘年。由於武氏死後的諡號中「則天」二字，所以近代以來學者多稱其為「武則天」，但這是一個不嚴謹的稱號。
在武則天實際統治中國的近50年時間里，她為了制衡甚至打擊北魏以來的世家大族（關隴集團）的權力，對以科舉進身仕途的官員大力提拔，並首創殿試。狄仁傑是其中的代表。她又安排她的侄兒武三思和武承嗣等人擔任重要機務，並曾經打算改立皇嗣。傳統史學家對武后批評則往往集中在酷吏制度上，如索元禮、來俊臣和周興等官員在她的鼓勵下替她以告密、酷刑等監視群臣。武后又設北門學士，常繞過門下省，中書省直接對官員發號施令，開了破壞官吏制度的先例。武則天還發明了一系列全新的漢字（則天文字），其中最著名的當屬「日月當空」這個字－－曌（漢語拼音：zhào，注音符號：ㄓㄠˋ），並作為女皇帝的名字，表示其名包含月和日，日與月在天空之上，月為陰日為陽，陰陽調和主宰天下。
武則天有男性內侍張昌宗弟兄和薛懷義等，這是她為宋代以後以程朱理學為準繩的史學家所不齒的原因，不過傳統男性皇帝的後宮亦很多。武則天對佛教亦大力推崇，武周時期的佛寺興建頻繁，使用出自佛經的年號，例如長安、証聖、大足等；這與李氏皇帝的年數大多出自道教典籍如貞觀、永徽、景雲、開元等年號相對。另外武后成了後來唐朝後宮女性爭權時效法的榜樣，例如韋後毒殺唐中宗等。
但武則天統治全中國的半個世紀里政績斐然，不容置疑：對外戰爭多數勝利，鞏固並拓展了中華帝國的版圖；開創殿試和武舉，發展了科舉制度；繼續推行均田制，促進了農業生產；文化藝術事業亦有所進步；國家較貞觀之治時期更有所發展，史稱「武周之治」，被後來的郭沫若等史學家贊為「政啟開元，治宏貞觀」。

[ 韋氏當權
神龍元年（705年），宰相敬暉、張柬之、韋彥範、崔玄暐和袁恕己等人發動政變，殺女皇男寵張氏兄弟，逼女皇退位，擁立中宗李顯復位，恢復了唐朝的政權，史稱「神龍革命」或「五王政變」。李旦被晉封為安國相王，太平公主被晉封為鎮國太平公主。中宗一直受到韋皇后、女兒安樂公主和武后的舊有黨羽武三思等人的影響，擁立功臣張柬之和武敬琿等人不久被全部流放誅殺。而過去與李顯共患難的韋皇后有意成爲第二個武后，安樂公主則曾要求被立為皇太女，他們母女兩人與上官婉兒聯手培植自己的黨羽，並害死了太子李重俊。景龍四年（710年），韋皇后和安樂公主合謀毒殺中宗，立溫王李重茂為帝，是為少帝，並欲加害相王李旦。李旦的兒子，當時是臨淄王的李隆基在姑母太平公主的協助下發動政變，誅盡韋皇后、安樂公主及武氏殘餘勢力，擁立李旦復位。

[ 開元之治
主條目：開元之治

唐玄宗是有唐一代國勢衰弱的轉捩點。後世史學家常感嘆大唐盛世是瞬間的沒落。李旦繼位以後，稱睿宗，其妹太平公主與其子李隆基發生權力之爭，睿宗左右為難。延和元年（712年），睿宗讓位於太子李隆基，是為唐玄宗，又稱唐明皇。先天二年（713年），太平公主本欲發動政變，卻被唐玄宗提前反制，最後被賜死於家中，其黨羽或殺或逐，結束了武后以來女人參政的局面。同年改元開元。唐玄宗在位44年，前期（開元年間）政治比較清明，任用姚崇和宋璟等賢能為相，經濟迅速發展，農業上發明瞭曲轅犁和筒車，使得農業生產力大幅提高，國力迅速上升，唐朝進入全盛時期，史稱「開元盛世」。這一時期被認為是繼漢武帝時期之後，中國歷史上出現的第二次鼎盛局面。首都長安城成為當時世界上最大的城市。

[ 安史之亂
主條目：安史之亂
唐玄宗改元天寶後，志得意滿，放縱享樂，從此不問國事。在納兒媳楊玉環為貴妃後，更加沉溺酒色。唐玄宗罷免良相張九齡，改用有「口蜜腹劍」惡名的李林甫為宰相長達十六年，使得朝政敗壞。李林甫死後又以楊國忠為相，此時期又開始出現了宦官干政的局面，高力士的權勢炙手可熱。天寶六年（747年），由高仙芝所率領的唐軍在中亞為阿拉伯帝國所挫敗，唐朝經營西域的進展受到了阻礙，因此唐朝便整頓了在中亞的佈局，準備趁阿拉伯帝國內亂時，再次發兵。但是唐朝內部也有隱憂。由於唐玄宗好大喜功，為此邊境將領經常挑起對異族的戰事，以邀戰功。又由於當時兵制由府兵制改為募兵制，使得節度使與軍鎮上的士兵結合在一起，就出現了邊將專軍的局面。其中以胡人安祿山最著。安祿山一人身兼范陽、平盧、河東三鎮節度使，掌握重兵，因與楊國忠不和，在天寶十四年（755年）十一月九日趁中央政治鬆懈、重軍多部署在邊境之機發動叛亂，史稱「安史之亂」。十二月十三日，東都洛陽淪陷。次年六月九日，潼關失守，長安告急。六月十三日，玄宗從長安出逃到成都，次日途經馬嵬驛時，禁軍把楊貴妃的堂兄楊國忠殺死，又要求玄宗絞殺楊貴妃，才繼續西行。太子李亨起初在靈武募兵，後來被宦官李輔國擁立為帝，是為肅宗，奉玄宗為太上皇。安祿山則自稱大燕皇帝，年號聖武。至德二年（757年），叛軍內訌，安祿山被其子安慶緒所殺。但是同時，史思明與安慶緒之間關係也開始冷淡。同年九月，長安光復，十月，洛陽光復。乾元二年（759年），史思明在魏州自稱大聖燕王，之後他又殺死安慶緒，返回范陽自稱大燕皇帝。之後叛軍又再次攻克洛陽。但是由於他性格殘忍好殺，其部下又在上元二年（761年）立其子史朝義為帝。之後，叛軍內部分崩離析，一蹶不振。寶應元年（762年），唐朝回紇聯軍攻克洛陽。史朝義向河北流竄。寶應二年（763年）正月，他就在石頭城（今唐山東北）附近的森林裏自縊。安史之亂經過八年時間至此才告平定，但是北方地區經過這場戰爭後人丁銳減，土地大量荒蕪，社會生產嚴重倒退，藩鎮割據也因此形成。唐朝從此也失去繼續經略中亞的實力、埋下了日後吐蕃、回紇侵犯京都長安的危機。安史之亂乃成為唐朝歷史上由盛轉衰的大分水嶺。

[ 藩鎮宦官
主條目：第二次宦官時代
安史之亂後，唐朝開始步入衰落。藩鎮割據、宦官專權與朋黨之爭成為唐朝政治的毒瘤。
代宗是唐朝歷史上第一個宦官擁立即位的皇帝。代宗即位後，雖然一心希望改革朝政。但是，國家受創巨大，邊防空虛，外患嚴重，東南地區又爆發了民變。吐蕃軍隊也攻入關中，長安一度淪陷。河北降將的不馴與回紇的勒索也大大消耗了國力。由於河北諸將的反復無常，藩鎮割據的局面在代宗晚期正式形成。大曆十四年（779年）五月廿日，代宗去世。
接替代宗即位的是其長子李適，號為德宗。德宗即位後，一直試圖削滅藩鎮之禍害。建中二年（781年）正月，德宗與山南、淄青等節度使之間爆發戰爭，但是由於補給不足，唐軍發生嘩變，德宗倉皇出逃到奉天。這次戰爭進行了五年，雖然最後叛亂首領朱泚和李希烈等敗死，但是唐朝卻與其餘藩鎮妥協，條件是取消王號，朝廷承認他們在當地的統治權。從此割據局面進一步深化。此外，從德宗在位期間開始，宦官考試掌控禁軍，擔任監軍，宦官濫權的局面也宣告形成。從此以後唐朝皇帝的廢立都掌握在宦官手裏。德宗雖然早年起用楊炎為相推行兩稅法，以劉晏改革漕運，改善了國家的財政形勢，但之後卻開始信用奸臣盧杞，並聽信其讒言，先後誅殺了楊炎和劉晏兩位能臣。之後，德宗就對大臣非常猜忌，甚至在其晚年還對大臣進行特務式的監視。貞元廿一年（805年）正月廿三日，德宗去世。但此時，唐朝的政治環境已經江河日下了。

[ 永貞元和
主條目：元和中興
德宗死後，做了26年皇太子的順宗李誦即位，改元永貞。順宗即位後，啟用以王叔文為首的一批改革派官員進行改革，改革了德宗朝留下的諸多不合理吏治。王叔文罷去了宮市和五坊小兒等欺壓平民的機構，減輕稅賦，罷免了貪官京兆尹李實，抑制地方藩鎮勢力。但是，改革的施行觸動了諸多守舊派官僚的利益，受到了越來越大的阻力。永貞元年（805年）六月廿日，王叔文就因為母親去世被迫離職，後來被貶為渝州司護參軍。其他主要的改革派官員——「二王八司馬」（王叔文、王伾、韓曄、韓泰、陳諫、凌準、程異、韋執宜、劉禹錫、柳宗元）都被放逐成為地方官。永貞革新因此快速煙消雲散。永貞二年（806年）正月初一，順宗在興慶宮進行內禪，正月十九日，他在興慶宮咸寧殿去世，終年46歲。
順宗內禪後，太子李純即位，是為憲宗，改元元和。憲宗在位期間，勤勉政務，著手削藩，開創了唐朝的中興氣象。元和元年（806年）正月，劍南西川節度副使劉辟發動叛亂，被憲宗討平。全國藩鎮因此震動，許多藩鎮因此上表歸順朝廷。憲宗善於納諫，並擴寬財路，積極斂財的同時皇室開支卻力行節儉。國家因此有財力得以繼續進行對拒不歸順的藩鎮的戰爭。元和九年（814年）十月，憲宗開始討伐淮西藩鎮吳元濟，元和十二年（817年）十月，吳元濟勢力被消滅。元和十三年（818年）正月，各地藩鎮都派使節到長安獻地納貢，以示歸順。憲宗十分崇佛，曾經赴法門寺奉迎佛骨，結果遭到了刑部侍郎韓愈的反對。後來，韓愈也被貶為潮州刺史。元和十五年（820年）正月廿七日，時年僅四十三歲的憲宗突然在大明宮中和殿內暴死。憲宗的去世也讓唐朝的中興氣象到此告一段落，藩鎮割據與朋黨之爭再告猖獗。

[ 甘露牛李
主條目：甘露之變和牛李黨爭
憲宗李純去世後，穆宗李恆即位，他即位後遊樂無度，藩鎮割據複又出現，宦官的權勢更加膨脹，朋黨之爭亦越演越烈，朝政又開始走下坡。穆宗即位僅三年就去世了。接替即位的敬宗李湛、文宗李昂、武宗李炎都是同父異母的兄弟，且都是宦官擁立，又都是非正常死亡，反映出了唐朝的政治形勢已經越來越壞。
敬宗即位後，完全不理朝政，專好遊樂擊球擺宴，連上朝都很少。敬宗過度的玩樂為他最後的結局埋下禍根。寶曆二年（826年）十二月初八日辛丑，敬宗出去「打夜狐」，回宮後又大擺宴席，在酒酣之時被宦官害死，時年僅十八歲。
接替即位的是文宗李昂，文宗勤勉聽政、生活節儉、打擊宦官。結果最後因為觸犯宦官集團的利益，在甘露之變中密謀誅殺宦官失敗。甘露之變而後，宦官團結一致；大臣唯有借藩鎮兵力對抗宦官權力，埋下殘唐時藩鎮和宦官的直接衝突。開成五年（840年）正月初四，文宗在大明宮太和殿去世，時年33歲。
接替文宗的是武宗，建元會昌（841年）。武宗在宦官仇士良的擁立下繼位。由於當時朝廷派系林立，仇士良不得已只好讓武宗親自處理朝政。武宗重用李黨首領李德裕，削減仇士良的權力，也提出一連串振興朝廷的政績，史稱會昌中興。他大力推行滅佛，史稱會昌滅佛，在佛教史上他被列為三武滅佛的三個君主之一。武宗推行道教，希望長生不老，最後因為服用丹藥去世。
在這四朝期間，牛李黨爭進行得異常激烈，嚴重損耗了唐朝的國力。牛李黨爭起始於元和三年（808年）的科舉考試，舉人牛僧孺、李宗閔、皇甫湜等在考卷裡批評朝政要求改革。考官認為兩個人符合選擇的條件，便把他們推薦給憲宗。這引發了當時宰相李吉甫（李德裕的父親）的不滿。引發兩派激烈爭奪，最後李吉甫貶為淮南節度使，另任命宰相。朝中大臣由此開始分為兩派。唐穆宗即位後，又舉行進士考試。由牛黨人物錢徽主持，卻被告徇私舞弊。在時任翰林學士的李德裕的證實下，錢徽被降職，李宗閔也受到牽連，被貶謫到外地。從此李宗閔和牛僧孺與李德裕結怨。牛僧孺、李宗閔與科舉出身的官員結成朋黨，李德裕也與士族出身的官僚結成朋黨，兩派明爭暗鬥的很厲害。唐文宗即位以後，李宗閔通過巴結宦官而成為宰相，牛僧孺也一同高升，兩人掌權後極力打擊李黨，李德裕被貶為西川節度使。武宗即位後，牛黨失勢，李德裕成為宰相，極力排斥牛黨。唐宣宗即位後，對武宗時期的舊臣一概排斥，李德裕被貶黜到海南。至此，長達四十年的牛李黨爭才宣告收場。

[ 大中暫治
會昌六年（846年），武宗李炎駕崩後，宣宗李忱在宦官的協助之下即位，改元大中（847年）。未即位前的宣宗表面上是容易被宦官利用的君主。但即位以後勵精圖治，是以唐朝又出現了短暫的復興景象，時人稱他為「小太宗」。宣宗察訪政事、加強皇權、抑制宦官政權，也結束了牛李黨爭。大中之政可算為當時黑暗的唐朝點亮一縷曙光。宣宗崇奉道教，一直希望能夠通過服用丹藥來長生不老。但是，大中十三年（859年）五月起，宣宗由於服用丹藥過度，身體狀況越來越差，到了八月就宣告駕崩。次年二月，葬於貞陵。

[ 殘唐而亡

唐末農民戰爭形勢圖宣宗之後，懿宗李漼與僖宗李儇是著名的無能之君，使唐朝的國勢一直走下坡。
懿宗驕奢淫逸，寵信宦官。懿宗即位時（859年），社會貧富差距很大，民變四起，而南詔又在此時向唐朝發動戰爭。防備南詔攻擊的桂林軍人反因為遲遲不能回鄉而嘩變，擁糧料判官龐勛為首領，再度爆發民變。但是，懿宗卻依然沉湎於遊樂，仍然好大喜功，任用奸佞，唐朝的政治局勢日益惡化。
咸通十四年（873年）七月十九日，懿宗駕崩，接替即位的是僖宗。僖宗專好鬥雞打毯，終於釀成黃巢民變。廣明元年（880年）十二月，長安被攻克，僖宗逃亡到四川。後來農民軍被以朱全忠為首的政府軍擊敗。但是，由於宦官與藩鎮之間再爆鬥爭，僖宗又被宦官挾持到鳳翔，而藩鎮的軍隊則在長安城大肆搶掠。文德元年（888年）三月六日，僖宗駕崩。接替即位的是是其弟昭宗李曄。昭宗即位之初還有恢復之心，但藩鎮勢力已尾大不掉，昭宗的改革遭到失敗，他的意志也日益消沉。天複三年（903年），昭宗被朱全忠押解回京，朱全忠發兵將宦官全部殺死。天祐元年（904年），朱全忠又提出遷都洛陽，長安宮室因此完全被毀。天祐元年八月十一日夜，昭宗被害。接替即位的是昭宗第九子哀帝李柷。此時唐朝已經名存實亡，哀帝不過是個傀儡。天祐二年（905年），朱全忠大肆貶逐朝官，並全部殺死於白馬驛，投屍於黃河，史稱白馬驛之禍。天祐四年（907年），朱全忠逼唐哀帝李柷禪位，改國號梁（史稱後梁），是為梁太祖，改元開平，都於開封。唐朝滅亡。
歐陽修、宋祁的《新唐書》總結唐朝的政治：「唐之治不能過兩漢，而地廣於三代（夏、商、周），勞民費財，禍所繇生。晉獻公殺嫡，賊二公子，號為暗君。明皇一日殺三庶人，昏蔽甚矣。鳴呼！父子不相信，而遠治閣羅鳳之罪，士死十萬，當時冤之。懿宗任相不明，籓鎮屢畔，南詔內侮，屯戍思亂，龐勛乘之，倡戈橫行。雖凶渠殲夷，兵連不解，唐遂以亡。《易》曰：「喪牛於易。」有國者知戒西北之虞，而不知患生於無備。漢亡於董卓，而兵兆於冀州；唐亡於黃巢，而禍基於桂林。《易》之意深矣！」[4]

[ 疆域

唐朝疆域圖唐朝前期是中國武功空前興旺的時代，疆域亦有大擴展。
在漠南漠北方面。貞觀四年（630年），唐朝出兵滅亡東突厥，漠南至此為其所有。貞觀廿年（646年），又一舉消滅了薛延陀汗國，至此大漠南北皆為唐朝所有。唐朝因此以大漠為界，在漠北設立安北都護府，在漠南設立單於都護府。永淳元年（682年），突厥復國，唐朝疆域因此退到陰山以南地區。天寶三年（744年），回紇建國，得到突厥故地，成為漠北強國之一，從此唐失去漠南漠北之地。
在西域方面，貞觀四年，唐朝在伊吾七城設立西伊州，開始經營西域。貞觀十九年（645年），唐朝移安西都護府到龜茲。顯慶四年（659年），唐又平西突厥。但唐對蔥嶺以東地區的統治並未延續太久，麟德二年（665年），由於大食勢力的擴展，唐朝勢力退到蔥嶺以東，安史之亂後，唐朝失去了對西域的控制權。
在朝鮮半島，顯慶五年（660年），唐朝滅亡百濟。乾封二年（667年），又滅高句麗，並設安東都護府於平壤。但由於當地人民反抗激烈及新羅勢力的北進，咸亨元年（670年）安東都護府內遷遼東。開元（713年）以後又將安東都護府移到遼西。天寶年間（742年—756年）安東都護府廢，遼東遂空，粟末靺鞨乘機據有其地。開元元年（713年）其首領大祚榮建立渤海國，號為「海東盛國」。
在青康藏高原上，吐蕃族日漸興起，至六世紀末與吐谷渾、蘇毗為高原上三大勢力。七世紀初，贊普松贊干布即位，統一了高原，又征服了位於西藏北部的蘇毗、阿裏地區的羊同和尼婆羅（今尼泊爾）。龍朔三年（663年），吐蕃滅吐谷渾，盡有其地。後又與唐爭奪安西四鎮，為唐最大敵國。安史之亂後，由於大量河隴邊兵參與平亂（主要為隴右節度使、朔方節度使所部）導致邊防空虛，吐蕃趁勢進逼，回紇則入據河套草原，使得唐政府能控制之疆域大減，黃河以西甘、涼皆不可得，終唐之世對於敦煌以西之控制亦完全喪失。
在西南雲貴地區，南詔建國，與唐時戰時和，也削弱了唐的國力。同時，由於交州土著的興起，自漢武帝平南越後一直是中國領土的越南北部地方，在唐末完全脫離漢族中國而獨立。

[ 行政區劃
隋朝前期實行州縣制，後期實行郡縣制。唐又改郡為州，恢復州縣二級制。貞觀元年，天下大定，又對州縣進行省並。唐朝還在州一級的行政區劃中設立「府」這一建制。先是開元元年設立京兆府和河南府。今後陸續升新的陪都和皇帝到過的地方為府。同時，唐朝根據山川形便將全國分為關內、河南、河東、河北、山南、隴右、淮南、江南、劍南、嶺南十道，是為貞觀十道。神龍二年設立十道巡察使、十道存撫使和十道按察使。這些都是監察官，為中央臨時派遣，不常置，也無固定治所。開元廿一年又從關內道分立京畿道，從河南道分立都畿道，分山南道為東西兩道，分江南道為江南東、江南西和黔中三道，共十五道，是為開元十五道，每道設立固定的監察官員（採訪使），有如漢朝的刺史，也設立了固定的治所（首府），正式成為十五個監察區，並逐漸向行政區轉變。這十五道如下：
京畿道，治西京（首都）京兆府（今陝西省西安市）；
關內道，治西京（首都）京兆府（今陝西省西安市）；
都畿道，治東都（陪都）河南府（今河南省洛陽市）；
河南道，治汴州（今河南省開封市）；
河東道，治蒲州（今山西省永濟市西）；
河北道，治魏州（今河北省大名縣東北）；
山南東道，治梁州（今陝西省漢中市）；
山南西道，治襄州（今湖北省襄樊市襄陽區）；
淮南道，治揚州（今江蘇省揚州市）；
江南東道，治蘇州（今江蘇省蘇州市）；
江南西道，治洪州（今江西省南昌市）；
黔中道，治黔州（今重慶市彭水苗族土家族自治縣）；
隴右道，治鄯州（今青海省樂都縣）；
劍南道，治益州（今四川省成都市）；
嶺南道，治廣州（今廣東省廣州市）。
在安史之亂平定後，唐朝政府增加了許多節度使，而節度使管轄的地區稱為藩鎮。唐政府本企圖可借節度使來平定一些叛亂，不料這些節度使擁兵自重、尾大不掉。唐朝末期因此形成了道（方鎮）、州（府）、縣三級行政區劃。唐末年全國有四五十個鎮，除了京兆府和周圍幾個州以及河南府外，全國其他地方都是藩鎮割據的局面。唐德宗時期，河朔一帶的藩鎮叛亂，佔領京師長安，德宗逃到漢中，用了四年的時間才平定，從此之後藩鎮之禍日益擴大。憲宗年間雖然平定了淮西吳元濟勢力，各地藩鎮繼歸順中央，但是卻未能除根。憲宗死後藩鎮割據的局面就又死灰復燃。最後唐朝終於亡在節度使朱溫的手中。唐朝後的五代十國實際上是藩鎮之禍的延續，只是一些藩鎮已經完全獨立而已。唐朝主要的地方官階如下：
州（郡）首領：刺史（太守）；
別駕、長史、司馬；
錄事、參軍事；
六曹：司功、司倉、司戶、司兵、司法、司士。
縣：縣令；
縣丞、主簿；
縣尉、錄事、佐史。
鄉：耆老；
里：里正；
村：村正；
保：保長；
鄰：鄰長。
四家一鄰，五鄰一保，五保一里，五里一鄉；一自然村為一村。城市內無村設坊，坊正和村正同級。
[ 唐朝人口

唐朝婦女雕像唐初的人口數字，據記載僅二三百萬戶。雖然實際人口不至於此，但多年戰亂讓人口急遽減少卻是事實。貞觀以後，社會安定、經濟富庶，人口快速增長。據《通典》卷七《食貨》載，到天寶十三年（西元754年），全國有891.4709萬戶，5291.9309萬口。當時全國有十五道，秦嶺淮河以北有人口3000萬。人口最多的是河南、河北兩道及淮北地區，這些地區合計人口接近2000萬。首都京兆府長安人口達到196萬，東都河南府洛陽則有118萬人口。運河沿岸的交通樞紐城市魏州也有人口110萬。河東道人口達372萬；關內道有150萬；隴右道人口最少，僅53萬。南方各道中，江南東道人口最多，有661萬。其次為劍南道，有409萬，其中成都府人口就有92萬。江南西道人口亦有372萬，淮南道227萬，嶺南道116萬。人口位居全國之末的是黔中道，僅16萬。
但在安史之亂後，北方社會生產被嚴重破壞，人口或死亡，或逃到南方。人口分佈格局因此發生重大變化。南方各地吸引的各地北方移民，而河北清河郡人口竟從安史之亂前的80萬銳減到10萬。加上之後的藩鎮割據以及黃巢民變，人口南遷更加嚴重。安史之亂一直到唐末是為中國人口的第二波大幅南遷潮。從此南方在經濟文化各方面都全面超越北方。五代十國時期，南方九國中除了吳和吳越兩國統治者是南方人，南漢是早期移民後裔外，其他六國統治者都是唐末北方移民。

[ 政治體制
唐朝沿用隋朝制訂的三省六部制，主要機構有三省、六部、一臺、五監、九寺。三省即為中書省，門下省，尚書省。尚書省下設立吏、戶、禮、兵、刑、工六部。此外中央還有殿中省和秘書省，只是這兩省職能不大。尚書省為全國最高行政機構，長官為尚書令。中書省是皇帝頒佈大政文書的機構，長官為中書令，副手為中書侍郎，下有中書舍人六人，此外右散騎常侍、右諫議大夫等諫官。門下省則是審核大政文書之機構。由於尚書權力太大，因此後來設立左右僕射（射讀作yè）代行大權。左右僕射就是宰相。後來，此二職要加同中書門下的頭銜才是宰相。但中書令和門下侍中的名位很高，也不常設。於是，給其他管理加上參預朝政、參議朝政、參議得失、同中書門下三品等頭銜就為宰相。宰相平時在政事堂討論朝政，政事堂會議成為協助皇帝統治的最高決策機構。
六部分管各種具體行政事務，下各設四司。六部有高低之分，吏、兵二部為前行，戶、刑二部為中行，禮、工二部為後行。其中吏部主管全國文官升遷，下設吏部、司封、司勳、考功四司；戶部掌管全國土地、民眾、財賦，下設戶部、度支、金部、倉部四司；禮部掌管祭祀，下設禮部、祠部、膳部等四司；兵部負責武人選舉、地圖、車馬、兵械等事務，下設兵部、職方、駕部、庫都四司。刑部主管律令刑事，下設刑部、都官、比部、司門四司；工部負責山澤、紙筆、屯田、工匠等事務，下設工部、屯田、虞都、水部四司。三省六部制在中國政治史上具有重要地位。
一臺就是御史台，其負責監察中央和地方管理，參與大獄的審訊。其長官為御史大夫，副長官是御史中丞。五監為國子監（掌文教）；少府監（掌皇家工業生產）；將作監（掌國家工程）；軍器監（兵器製造）；都水監（掌水利建設）。九寺有太常寺（掌禮儀祭祀）；光祿寺（掌皇室食物）；衛尉寺（掌兵器和儀仗）；宗正寺（掌皇室族譜）；太僕寺（掌皇帝車馬）；大理寺（掌刑法）；鴻臚寺（掌邦交典禮）；司農寺（掌國家倉儲）；太府寺（掌國家財政）。此外，唐朝還有三師（太師、太傅、太保），三公（太尉，司徒，司空）等榮譽職務。此外，唐朝在其前期還設立過如節度使、鹽鐵轉運使、樞密使等臨時職務，後來則成為定職。
隋代成立的科舉制度在初唐時期還不完善，朝中的政治仍然被關隴貴族集團所壟斷。到了武則天執政後，他大力起用通過科舉進入政府的平民官僚，貴族政治的局面至此開始瓦解。唐朝中期以後，貴族官僚已經幾乎不復存在，但是科舉士人卻進行牛李黨爭，這場黨爭持續長達四十年，嚴重敗敗壞了朝政。
唐朝中後期也與漢朝後期和明朝後期成為中國歷史上三個宦官時代。唐朝早期，宦官並沒有什麼權力，自玄宗時代高力士得寵以來，宦官的地位步步高升，開始直接參與政治。後來伴隨者宦官對兵權的掌握，皇帝的廢立都掌握在宦官的手中。這以「甘露之變」表現得最為突出。而在朱全忠誅滅了全部宦官之後，唐朝也很快滅亡。顯示宦官已與皇帝形成了命運共同體。
唐朝的法律分為律、令、格、式四種。律是刑法典；令是指國家對各項制度所做出的具體規定（如《戶令》）；式是各項行政法規（如《水部式》）；格則是對律令式做出的補充修改。《唐律》是根據隋朝《開皇律》修正而來。自李淵時代開始制訂，在唐太宗時才宣告完成。至高宗永徽年間又對唐律進行了全面解釋，與《唐律》合稱為《永徽律疏》。後世則稱呼為《唐律疏典》。唐律分十二篇，共五百零二條，刑名則有五種。

[ 唐朝經濟
主條目：唐朝經濟
唐朝經濟雖不如其後的宋朝那樣發達，但亦可圈可點。

[ 農業
唐朝農業生產工具又有新的進步。曲轅犁就出現在唐朝。還出現了新的灌溉工具水車和筒車。唐朝前期，僅見於記載的重要水利工程就高達一百六十多項。其中著名的如玉梁渠、絳岩湖、鏡湖等。天寶年間，唐朝耕地面積達到八百五十萬頃。糧食產量也有提高。天寶八年，官倉存糧達九千六百萬石。長安洛陽米價最低時每斗僅十三文，青州、齊州每斗僅五文。唐朝後期，由於人口南移加上土地開墾及大修水利，南方的糧食產量大幅增加。

[ 手工業
唐朝手工業分官營和私營兩種。工部是主管官營手工業的最重要部門，直接管理的機構有少府監、將作監、軍器監。少府監主管精緻手工藝品；將作監主管土木工程的興建；軍器監負責兵器的建造。監下設署、署下設作坊。此外還有鑄錢監和冶監等。官營手工業的產品一般不對外銷售，只供皇室和衙門消費。工人則分為工匠、刑徒、官奴婢、官戶、雜戶等。私營手工業較官營手工業比不發達。唐朝前期主要手工業有紡織業、陶瓷業和礦冶業。唐後期，南方手工業大幅進步，特別是絲織業、造船業、造紙業和制茶業。

[ 商業與交通

唐朝錢幣「開元通寶」唐朝的城市商品經濟仍不發達，但已有成長。長安、洛陽、蘇州、揚州、成都、廣州等都是一定地域內的商業中心。唐朝國內交通發達。陸路交通以長安為中心，道路遍佈全國。水路交通則是以洛陽為中心的大運河為主。全國共有驛站一千四百六十三所。其中陸驛一千二百九十七所，水驛二百六十所。自安史之亂後，由於大批士紳與工匠南遷，長江流域商業城市發展快速，國家的經濟財政亦仰賴南方的補給，當時有所謂「揚一益二」的說法；而江南最大城市、江南東道治所蘇州的繁華程度在中唐時已逐步超越揚州和洛陽，在全國僅次於長安，成為整個中國南方唯一的、最高等級的州——雄州，有「甲郡標天下」之說，即所謂「當今國用，多出江南。江南諸州，蘇最為大」；此外杭州、湖州等地的經濟也得到了較快發展。廣州、泉州、明州（今浙江寧波）和揚州等地成為海上貿易中心。而坊市分開的制度在蘇州、揚州等商業城市被打破，還出現了夜市。大城市中出現了櫃枋和飛錢。櫃枋經營錢物寄付，在櫃枋存錢的客戶可以憑書貼（類似於支票）寄付錢財。飛錢又叫便換，類似於現在的匯票。這些都說明了商業在唐朝後期的繁榮。

[ 土地與賦稅制度
武德七年四月，唐朝政府頒佈均田令和租庸調。均田令規定政府依戶籍授田。人口三歲以下為黃，四歲為小，十六為中，廿一為丁，六十為老。丁男和十八歲以上的中男授田一頃，老男和殘障人授田四十畝。寡妻妾授田卅畝。和尚道士每人授田卅畝，尼姑女冠則有廿畝。貴族和官吏則另有規定。土地的買賣則有嚴格限制。無庸質疑，均田制對唐初生產的恢復有大意義。
租庸調法是與均田制配套實行的賦役制度。租庸調按丁徵收。每丁每年交納粟二石，稱為租。根據各地的不同生產，每年交納絹二丈，錦三兩，或布二丈五尺，麻三斤。稱為調。每丁每年要服徭役廿日，閏月加兩日。如果不想服徭役，每天折納絹三尺或布三尺七寸五分。稱為庸。如果政府額外加役，十五日，免調；卅日，租調全免。額外加役最多不可超過卅日。
唐朝後期由於藩鎮割據，均田制宣告瓦解，大莊園制經濟日益發展。莊園制的形成導致土地兼併嚴重，越來越多的自耕農成為地主的佃戶。這種情況導致稅收人口緊缺。據統計，肅宗上元元年國家控制的人口僅一千六百九十九萬零三百八十六。，其中納稅人口只有兩百三十七萬零七百九十九。唐朝的財政陷入崩潰。為解決財政困難，劉晏開始實行賦稅制度改革，取得很好的成效。德宗建中元年，唐朝的財政制度由租庸調法改為兩稅法。兩稅法沿襲過去地稅和戶稅的形式，按田畝的多少收地稅，按戶等的高低抽戶稅。這樣，官僚、貴族、地主和商人都要納稅，減輕了平民的負擔，也增加了政府的收入。但是，兩稅法也有一些弊病，諸如錢重物輕等。唐朝後期，為解決財政拮据的局面，實行鹽鐵專賣制度。政府設立鹽鐵使管理各地的專賣情況。結果導致物價飛騰，民怨四起，民間販賣私鹽者不在少數。而鹽鐵專賣制度也是黃巢民變的直接原因之一。

[ 軍事

昭陵六駿之一，唐太宗李世民的戰馬唐朝一統中國之後，太宗、高宗、武后先後對外用兵，擊敗北方的東突厥與西突厥，在西北攻滅高昌、收其地為州縣，重新控制西域，在東北滅高句麗和百濟，並在白村江戰役擊敗日本援軍。到玄宗時，唐朝對外擴張達到頂峰，勢力甚至遠達中亞與新興的黑衣大食（即伊斯蘭教遜尼派的阿拔斯王朝）相遇。但唐朝經安史之亂後一蹶不振，不僅無力保持前期擴張的成果，還要依靠吐蕃、回紇的軍事實力以對抗藩鎮的割據勢力。雖然唐朝朝廷獲得過對淮西、劍南等地藩鎮的軍事勝利，但是無法阻止地方割據的大勢。唐朝廷就此衰落下去，在對外戰爭中也接連失敗。京城長安甚至一度被吐蕃攻陷，西南的南詔也曾聯合吐蕃佔領過成都。
唐朝早期繼承隋朝制度實行府兵制。府兵制的基本單位是折沖府。府分三等。上府一千兩百人，中府一千人，下府八百人。軍府長官為折沖都尉，副職為左右果毅都尉。府兵稱衛士或侍官。軍府隸屬於十二衛和六率。軍府最多時有六百三十四個，其中三成以上駐紮在關中，保衛長安。府兵制是以均田制為基礎的農兵合一制度。兵士廿一歲入軍，六十歲免役。衛士平時在家生產，農閒時由軍府訓練。其經常性任務是輪流到長安宿衛，叫做番上。戰時則應徵作戰。服役期間免除自己的租調；但口糧和兵器都要自己負責。府兵制實際上是士兵和農民的結合，減輕了國家的負擔。戰事結束後，士兵回府，將領回朝，降低了將領擁兵自重的危險。府兵制的主要缺點在於動員速度慢，用兵時間過長會影響農業，而且免除士兵的稅賦對朝廷收入也是一個損失。因此，太宗、高宗及武后時已經採取過臨時徵募士兵的辦法作為對府兵制的補充。到玄宗時，均田制和租庸調製漸被破壞，府兵大多逃散。玄宗天寶年間正式以徵兵制和募兵制替代已經廢壞的府兵制。為了滿足他「領有四夷」的虛榮心，募得的士兵長期駐扎在邊鎮以進行對外戰爭，稱為「健兒」。這些職業士兵與土地沒有聯繫，他們只渴望從邊境戰爭中獲得收益。邊鎮將領通過利益關係和部族關係（很多將領和士兵都來自依附的異族）大大加強了對士兵的控制，埋下了日後禍亂的種子。安史之亂後，唐朝廷在軍事上開始失勢：內有藩鎮割據，外有回紇、吐蕃、南詔的入侵。例如唐朝需要借回紇兵來平定安史之亂，763年吐蕃軍曾經佔領長安達十五日，南詔軍一度攻打成都並佔領安南直至十國的南漢才收回。唐朝防備南詔之士兵不滿又導致了龐勛之變。後來的黃巢的流寇叛亂導致朱全忠和沙陀人李克用的爭戰，直至唐朝滅亡後仍未平息。

唐三彩的戰馬唐玄宗時唐朝的勢力與來自現在阿拉伯、新興和信奉（即黑衣大食）的勢力在包含昭武九姓國、大小勃律、吐火羅在內的中亞諸國相遇。雖然唐朝在西元751年怛羅斯戰役戰敗，經略中亞的進展遇挫，但是接踵而至的安史之亂和藩鎮割據導致華北地區經濟蕭條，使正重整武力的唐朝大軍從此無暇顧及中亞，軍隊必須退回長安一帶平定內亂，終於造成唐朝在往後的一百五十年間吐蕃和回紇勢力興起並佔領原屬唐朝的西半部領土。
唐朝的眾多著名將領中，除了淩煙閣二十四功臣中的將領、郭子儀、李晟及其子李愬、高駢等漢族統帥外，異族將領也佔據了重要地位：比較重要的有混血胡安祿山、史思明、百濟人黑齒常之、高句麗人高仙芝、突厥人阿史那社爾、契丹人李光弼、靺鞨人李懷光、突厥突騎施部人哥舒翰、鐵勒部的僕固懷恩、渾瑊和阿跌光進等。

[ 文化藝術和宗教

唐朝菩薩雕像宗教在社會上的地位與影響力，唐朝時可謂最高。唐朝時期佛教的主要宗派有天臺宗、華嚴宗、法相宗、淨土宗和禪宗。天臺宗奉《法華經》，故又稱為法華宗。華嚴宗奉《華嚴經》，參與政治較多。淨土宗則易於入門。禪宗分為南北二宗，北宗創立者是神秀，他主張漸悟說。南宗創立者是慧能，他主張頓悟說。唐武宗時對佛教採取高壓政策，史稱會昌滅法，使得除禪宗南宗等少數宗派外，其他佛教派別從此一蹶不振。由於唐朝皇室姓李，又相傳其為老子之後，因此道教在唐朝上流社會也很流行。唐高宗追尊老子為太上玄元皇帝。唐玄宗也大力提倡道教，還在科舉考試中增設道舉。除了佛道二教外，當時還有伊斯蘭教、拜火教、摩尼教、景教（基督教聶斯脫利派）等外來宗教。但影響力較小。
唐代社會，雖然世族的勢力被削減，但仍然不是一個平等的社會。《唐律》中也明訂，人分為「良」「賤」兩大類，賤民只能與賤民結婚；地主殺害部曲最多求刑一年，而部曲殺害地主必處斬。雖然科舉制度實行，但由於世族的生活條件較為優渥，其子弟的文化修養也就跟著較高，不論是否參加科舉，進入仕途都不是非常困難；唐代宰相出身世族者也就不在少數。

後世所繪的杜甫像唐朝文學成就以詩歌最為發達。清人所編《全唐詩》共收錄兩千兩百多位詩人的四萬八千九百多首詩，這還不是全部。唐初詩人以「初唐四傑」最為著名（王勃、楊炯、盧照鄰、駱賓王）。盛唐時期詩人可分為以王維、孟浩然為代表的田園派和岑參、王昌齡為代表的邊塞派。其中集大成者為「詩仙」李白和「詩聖」杜甫最為出名。李白的詩，飄逸灑脫，充滿浪漫主義的色彩。而杜甫的詩則更多體現現實主義之情懷。中唐時期最卓越的詩人是白居易，他的詩通俗易懂。此外還有元稹、韓愈、柳宗元、劉禹錫、李賀等。晚唐詩人以李商隱和杜牧最為出眾，被稱為「小李杜」。後世宋、明、清雖仍有傑出詩人出現，但總體水準都不如唐朝詩人，唐詩成為了中國古詩不可逾越的巔峰。
在散文方面。六朝以來，文壇盛行駢文這種文體形式，駢文講究聲韻、對偶、典故，辭藻華麗，以四字句和六字句組成。在唐初乃十分盛行，以初唐四傑最為著名，但這種文體到唐朝時顯得形式僵化，內容空洞，故到了天寶年間，古文逐漸興起。古文運動在名義上是要恢復先秦兩漢的問題，實際上是要文章更有內容，也就是「文以載道」。韓愈是唐宋八大家之首，他的散文氣勢磅礴又思想深刻，號稱「文起八代之衰」；不過唐代的古文運動在韓柳去世後就逐漸衰退，唐末駢文又再度興起。傳奇是中國的一種古典小說形式，出現在隋朝，興盛於唐朝。著名的傳奇包括《柳毅傳》、《鶯鶯傳》、《南柯太守傳》、《枕中記》和《長恨傳》等。有的傳奇在後代還被改編為戲劇和白話小說。唐朝變文在中國文學史上也有重要地位。所謂變文起初是指佛教僧侶宣傳佛教講唱佛經的底本。最初變文僅限於佛教經典，後來則開始講唱其他故事，講唱的人也不限於僧侶。變文對傳奇和後世的說唱文學都有很大影響。

張萱繪「虢國夫人游春圖」（摹本）由於吸收了西域特徵與宗教色彩，唐朝藝術與前後朝代都迥然不同。初唐的閻立本、閻立德兄弟擅畫人物。吳道子則有「畫聖」之稱呼，他兼擅人物、山水，並吸收了西域畫派的技法，畫面富於立體感，有「吳帶當風」之說。張萱和周昉以畫侍女圖為主，他們的著名作品有「搗練圖」、「虢國夫人游春圖」和「簪花仕女圖」等。詩人王維擅長水墨山水畫，蘇軾稱他「畫中有詩」。唐朝的壁畫事業特別發達。莫高窟與墓室壁畫都是傳世精品。唐朝的雕刻藝術同樣出眾。敦煌、龍門、麥積山和炳靈寺石窟都是在唐朝時期步入全盛。龍門石窟的盧舍那大佛和四川樂山大佛都令人讚歎。昭陵六駿、墓葬三彩陶俑都非常精美。其中雕刻家楊惠之被稱為塑聖。唐朝時期，書法家輩出。歐陽詢、虞世南都是初唐著名書法家。歐陽詢的楷書筆力嚴整，其名作有《九成宮醴泉銘》。虞世男楷書字體柔圓。顏真卿和柳公權是唐朝中後期的著名書法家。顏真卿的楷書用筆肥厚，內含筋骨，勁健灑脫，其代表作有《多寶塔碑》；柳公權的字體勁健，代表作有《玄秘塔碑》，世人稱顏柳二人書法為「顏筋柳骨」。張旭和懷素則是草書大家。

樂山大佛唐朝音樂舞蹈發達。唐太宗平高昌得高昌樂，併入原有的九部樂成為十部樂：燕樂、清商樂、西涼樂、天竺樂、高麗樂、龜茲樂、安國樂、疏勒樂、康國樂、高昌樂[5]。唐高宗以後，十部樂開始衰落，音樂家開始研究新的樂舞。玄宗本人就是音樂家，愛好親自演奏琵琶、羯鼓等多種樂器，擅長作曲，作有《霓裳羽衣曲》、《小破陣樂》等百余首樂曲；他非常重視音樂事業，將十部樂分為坐部伎、立部伎[6]，曾經親選坐部伎三百人，號為「皇帝梨園子弟」，李龜年和永新娘子都是名噪一時的歌唱家。唐朝的舞蹈則是以健舞和軟舞最為出名，著名的舞蹈有「七德舞」、「上元舞」等，舞蹈家則有公孫大娘等。
唐朝史學開創了國家正式開館修史這一風潮。唐初史館奉詔所修的正史有《晉書》、《梁書》、《陳書》、《北齊書》、《周書》、《隋書》六部。加上史家李延壽私撰的《南史》和《北史》，合計廿四史中有八部出在唐朝，占總數的三分之一。此外，唐朝還有杜佑撰寫的政書《通典》，劉知幾的修史專著《史通》，李吉甫著的地方誌《元和郡縣圖志》。
唐朝科技亦有明顯進步。天文學家僧一行在世界上首次測量了子午線的長度，他還與梁令瓚合作，製成水運渾天銅儀。藥王孫思邈的《千金要方》和《千金翼方》是不可多得的醫書。唐朝首都長安城與東都洛陽規劃嚴整，人口都超過了百萬。不僅是當時的世界一流大都市，也為後世留下了城市規劃的樣板。當時周邊國家的首都，如日本平安京、新羅平壤和渤海國上京龍泉府都是仿照長安建造。唐朝的木結構建築規模雄渾，氣魄豪邁。佛塔形式也融合了中國與印度的造型，顯得千變萬化，多種多樣。868年，中國《金剛經》的印製是世界上已知最早的雕版印刷。中國的造紙、紡織等技術通過阿拉伯地區遠傳到西亞、歐洲。同時期甘蔗熬糖法也從摩揭陀傳入中國[7]。
科舉制度在唐朝進入了發展期。唐朝的學校以官辦為主。中央設國子監，下轄六學，為國子學、太學、四門學、律學、書學、算學。這些學校主要招收貴族官僚子弟，也招收少量平民子弟。學生稱生徒，人數在兩千以上。地方設立州、縣學，每校有學生十人。學校為科舉考試服務，成績好的學校保送參加科舉考試，主要的講授內容是九經。唐朝的科舉分為常舉和制舉兩種。常舉每年舉辦考試，科目有明經、進士、明法、明書、明算等。此外還有秀才、道舉、童子、一史、三史等科目。常舉的應考舉子有兩個來源，一是保送的生徒；二是鄉貢選拔出來的自學者。應考舉子主要集中在明經和進士兩科。明經科主要考試儒家經典，難度較低。進士科主要考詩賦和政論，難度高，但其是主要的高官進身之階。明經科的錄取率約為十分之一二，進士科不過百分之一二。時有諺曰：三十老明經，五十少進士。而制舉則是臨時考試，是為了網羅非常人才，不常舉行。

[ 外交

閻立本繪步輦圖，其內容為唐太宗接見吐蕃使者由於唐朝國力強大，其與周邊各國都有密切的關係。早期各國由於懾於唐朝的國威，與唐朝關係比較友好。後期由於唐朝國力衰弱，關係也時戰時和反覆不定。唐朝早期在邊境上設立六個都護府，分別是：安西（640年設立，主要負責天山以南地區的守備）；安北（647年設立，主要守衛漠北）；單於（650年設立，主要守衛漠南）；安東（668年設立，主要守衛朝鮮半島北部和滿洲）；安南（679年設立，主要守衛越南地區）；北庭（701年設立，主要守衛天山以北地區）。
貞觀三年，唐朝大敗東突厥軍隊，突利可汗投降，頡利可汗被俘，東突厥滅亡。大量突厥人遷到長安，各遊牧民族尊唐太宗為「天可汗」。東突厥的滅亡與歸順震動了西突厥與西域各國，一些西域小國紛紛改投唐朝門庭。顯慶二年，西突厥也被唐朝所滅亡（參見唐與突厥的戰爭）。西域至此均為唐朝所有，唐朝與當時的另一大帝國阿拉伯帝國的聯繫也更密切了。但是到了八世紀中葉以後，唐朝在與阿拉伯帝國的交戰中屢屢挫敗，唐朝勢力也基本退出了中亞沙漠地區。682年，突厥複國，但國力已經大不如前。以至於半世紀後又被鐵勒一部回紇所滅。回紇與唐朝長期關係友好，還曾派軍隊幫助唐朝剿滅安史叛軍。由於得到唐的支持，回紇接替突厥成為了大漠南北的主要力量，直到開成五年（840年），回鶻（回紇於貞元五年改名）因為天災連年以及內部紛爭被黠戛斯所滅。
與唐朝對峙的另一大國是吐蕃。吐蕃贊普松贊干布在統一吐蕃後，一直向唐朝提親。貞觀十五年，唐太宗派禮部尚書、江夏王李道宗護送文成公主入藏，松贊干布到柏海迎接。文成公主將蠶等中原特有的事物帶入吐蕃，中國的風俗同時也傳入吐蕃，一些吐蕃的大臣改穿絲綢服飾。文成公主的嫁妝中還有一批工匠，這些工匠將中原的建築形式融入吐蕃的建築形式，大昭寺是其中代表。吐蕃的曆法也參考了唐朝的曆法。從此之後，唐蕃兩國雖然尚算良好，但也時有摩擦。神龍二年，由於吐蕃軍事失利，便主動與唐修好，雙方使臣在長安會盟。史稱神龍會盟。唐中宗應允將將金城公主嫁給吐蕃贊普尺帶珠丹。但是，實際上吐蕃也在秣馬厲兵，積極備戰。714年，吐蕃向唐朝要求重劃邊界，修改盟書，被唐朝拒絕。兩國因此交戰，吐蕃兵敗，於是又主動求和談判。開元廿年，兩國再次會盟，兩國決定以赤嶺為界限。734年正式立碑。但好景不長，由於安史之亂後唐朝走向衰落，吐蕃開始驕橫。建中年間其要求與唐確立甥舅之國的關係，而不用臣國之禮。783年，兩國在清水會盟，這次會盟基本滿足吐蕃的要求，兩國改以賀蘭山為界。787年，唐蕃又會盟於平涼，吐蕃預備進行劫盟，結果唐朝除了主盟官員外，其餘六十多名官員都被扣押。唐軍死五百多人，被俘一千多人，史稱平涼劫盟。長慶元年，吐蕃內部分裂，國勢衰弱，再次請求與唐和盟。最後兩國在長安西郊進行會盟，重新確定了清水會盟確立的邊界。史稱長慶會盟，從此之後，兩國關係一直比較和平，也都無力再戰。

唐三彩，駱駝背上的西方人七世紀後，南詔統一了雲南地區。唐朝與南詔的關係也是時好時壞。南詔一度長期與吐蕃合作，一同進攻唐朝。但779年後，吐蕃南詔聯軍攻唐失敗，南詔軍元氣大傷，吐蕃又遷怒南詔。兩國從此矛盾加深。794年，唐朝與南詔在點蒼山會盟，雙方建立了良好的關係。但是到820年代後，由於南詔王權旁落，兩國又開始爆發戰爭。829年，南詔傾全國之兵力進攻唐朝，一度逼近成都，但是最後因為害怕唐朝報復而又修好。之後，兩國之間的關係依然是和戰相間，直到雙雙覆滅。
在東北邊境上。唐朝與渤海國「車書本一家」，之間一直互動頻繁，多名渤海貴族子弟曾到長安學習。唐朝與新羅和日本關係一直密切。新羅派大量留學生到唐朝學習，其中的崔致遠還中了進士。中國的文化也大量傳入新羅。兩國在邊境之間商貿往來也非常頻繁。日本先後派遣了十三次遣唐使，每次使團規模都在百人以上，著名的留學生有阿倍仲麻呂等。日本的文字平假名和片假名也都是分別從中國的草書和部首演變而來。鑒真和尚應日本僧人之邀，曾經六次東渡，最後終於成功。此外，唐朝與東南亞和南亞的真臘、室利佛逝、驃、獅子國、天竺等國家也關係密切。玄奘和義淨西域求法，所著《大唐西域記》、《大唐西域求法高僧傳》是唐代兩部重要的中外關係史著作。唐朝的建築與歌舞也吸收了天竺的風格。唐朝與中西亞的「昭武九姓」、吐火羅、波斯、大食（阿拉伯帝國）和東羅馬帝國之間也有往來。

The Tang Dynasty (Chinese: 唐朝; Pinyin: Táng Cháo) (18 June 618 – 4 June 907 AD) was preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period in China. The dynasty was founded by the Li (李) family, who seized opportunity in the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire. The dynasty was interrupted briefly by the Second Zhou Dynasty (16 October 690 – 3 March 705) when Empress Wu Zetian seized the throne (the first and only Chinese Empress to rule in her own right).

The Tang Dynasty, with its capital at Chang'an (present-day Xi'an), the most populous city in the world at the time, is regarded by historians as a high point in Chinese civilization — equal to or surpassing that of the Han Dynasty - as well as a golden age of cosmopolitan culture. Its territory, acquired through the military campaigns of its early rulers, was greater than that of the Han period, and rivaled that of the later Yuan Dynasty and Qing Dynasty. The dynasty featured two of Chinese history's major prosperity periods, the Zhen'guan Prosperity (Tang Taizong) and Kaiyuan Prosperity (Tang Xuanzong's early rule). The enormous Grand Canal of China (still the longest canal in the world) built during the previous Sui Dynasty facilitated the rise of new urban settlements along its route, as well as increased accessibility in mainland China to its own indigenous commercial market.

In Chinese history, the Tang Dynasty was largely a period of progress and stability (except for the An Lushan Rebellion and decline of central power during the 9th century). Chinese culture flourished and matured further during the Tang era and it is also considered the greatest age for Chinese poetry. Two of China's most famous historical poets, Du Fu and Li Bai, belonged to this age, as well as Meng Haoran and Bai Juyi. There were also many famous visual artists, such as the renowned painters Han Gan, Wu Daozi, and Zhan Ziqian, although classic Chinese painting would not reach its zenith until the Song and Ming dynasties. Although the dynasty and central government were in decline by the 9th century, this did not mean art and culture didn't continue to flourish. And although the weakened central government withdrew largely from managing the economy, commercialism and mercantile affairs continued to thrive regardless.

Li Yuan (later to become Emperor Gaozu) was a former governor of Taiyuan when other government officials were fighting off bandit leaders in the collapse of the Sui Empire, with local elites developing defenses of their own. With prestige and military record 'under his belt', he later rose in rebellion at the urging of his second son, the skilled and militant Li Shimin (later Emperor Taizong of Tang). Their family came from the background of the northwest military aristocracy prevalent during the reign of the Sui emperors. In fact, the mothers of both Emperor Yang of Sui and Gaozu of Tang were sisters, making these two emperors of different dynasties first cousins.[1]

Li Yuan installed a puppet child emperor of the Sui dynasty in 617 but he eventually removed the child emperor and established the Tang dynasty in 618. Li Yuan ruled until 626 before being forcefully deposed by his son, Li Shimin, known as "Tang Taizong" in history. Li Shimin had commanded troops since the age of eighteen, had prowess with a bow, sword, lance, and in cavalry charges. In a violent elimination of fellow royal family for political power, Li Shimin ambushed two of his brothers, one being the heir to the throne, and had all ten of their sons executed. Shortly after, his father abdicated in favour of him and he ascended the throne as Emperor Taizong. Although his rise to power was brutal and violent, he was also known for his benevolence and care for governance. For example, in 628 AD, Emperor Taizong held a Buddhist memorial service for the casualties of war, and in 629 had Buddhist monasteries erected at the sites of major battles so that monks could pray for the fallen on both sides of the fight.[2]

Taizong then set out to solve internal problems within the government, problems which had constantly plagued past dynasties. He issued a new legal code that subsequent Chinese dynasties would model theirs upon, as well as neighboring polities in Vietnam, Korea, and Japan. The Emperor had three administrations (省, shěng), which were obliged to draft, review, and implement policies respectively. There were also six divisions (部, bù) under the administration that implemented policy, each of which was assigned different tasks.

Although the founders of the Tang related to the glory of the earlier Han Dynasty, the basis for much of their administrative organization was very similar to the previous Southern and Northern Dynasties.[1] The Northern Zhou divisional militia (fubing) was continued by the Tang governments, along with farmer-soldiers serving in rotation from the capital or frontier in order to receive appropriated farmland. The equal-field system of the Northern Wei Dynasty was also kept, with a few modifications.[1]

The center of the political power of the Tang was the capital city of Chang'an (modern Xi'an), where the emperor maintained his large palace quarters and grounds, and entertained political emissaries with music, acrobatic stunts, poetry, paintings, early dramatic theater performances (see Pear Garden acting troupe), and so forth.


[edit] Culture and Society
Both the Sui and Tang Dynasties had turned away from the more militant culture of the preceding Northern Dynasties, in favor of staunch civil Confucianism. A government system supported by a large class of Confucian literati selected through civil service examinations was perfected under Tang rule. This competitive procedure was designed to draw the best talents into government. But perhaps an even greater consideration for the Tang rulers, aware that imperial dependence on powerful aristocratic families and warlords would have destabilizing consequences, was to create a body of career officials having no autonomous territorial or functional power base. As it turned out, these scholar-officials acquired status in their local communities, family ties, and shared values that connected them to the imperial court. From Tang times until the closing days of the Qing Dynasty in 1911, scholar officials functioned often as intermediaries between the grassroots level and the government.


A Tang Dynasty stele by Emperor TaizongThe Tang period was the golden age of Chinese literature and art (see Tang Dynasty art). Tang poems in particular are still read today. For example, Du Fu's poem To My Retired Friend Wei:

It is almost as hard for friends to meet as for the morning and evening stars. Tonight then is a rare event, joining, in the candlelight, two men who were young not long ago but now are turning grey at the temples. ...To find that half our friends are dead shocks us, burns our hearts with grief. We little guessed it would be twenty years Before I could visit you again. When I went away, you were still unmarried; But now these boys and girls in a row are very kind to their father's old friend. They ask me where I have been on my journey; and then, when we have talked awhile, they bring and show me wines and dishes, spring chives cut in the night-rain and brown rice cooked freshly a special way. ...My host proclaims it a festival, He urges me to drink ten cups -- but what ten cups could make me as drunk as I always am with your love in my heart? ...Tomorrow the mountains will separate us; after tomorrow - who can say? [1]

Stimulated by contact with India and the Middle East, the Empire saw a flowering of creativity in many fields. Buddhism, originating in India around the time of Confucius, continued to flourish during the Tang period and was adopted by the imperial family, becoming thoroughly sinicized and a permanent part of Chinese traditional culture. In an age before Neo-Confucianism and figures such as Zhu Xi, Buddhism had begun to flourish in China during the Southern and Northern Dynasties, and became the dominant ideology during the prosperous Tang. However, situations changed as the dynasty and central government began to decline from civil authority into rule of regional military governors (jiedushi). During the 9th century, as economic prosperity was in decline, Buddhist convents and temples that were exempt from state taxes beforehand were targeted by the state for taxation, and then their land was finally targeted for liquidation (in order for the state to increase its failing revenues). In what was to follow, Buddhism became heavily persecuted in late Tang China. Although it would remain within the framework of Chinese cultural eras to come, it never again gained its once dominant status that it enjoyed during the Tang era. This situation also came about through new revival of interest in native Chinese philosophies, such as Confucianism and Daoism. The "brilliant polemicist and ardent xenophobe" known as Han Yu (786 - 824) was one of the first men of the Tang to denounce Buddhism.[3] Although his contemporaries found him crude and obnoxious, he would foreshadow the later persecution of Buddhism in the Tang, as well as the revival of Confucian theory with the rise of Neo-Confucianism of the Song Dynasty.[3]


The Diamond Sutra, printed in 868 AD, the world's first widely printed book (using woodblock printing).Block printing made the written word available to vastly greater audiences. The text of the Diamond Sutra is an early example of Chinese woodblock printing, complete with illustrations embedded with the text. With so many more books coming into circulation for the general public, literacy rates could improve, along with the lower classes being able to obtain cheaper sources of study (hence more lower class people seen entering the Imperial Examinations and passing them by the later Song Dynasty). Although the later Bi Sheng's movable type printing was innovative for his period (the Song Dynasty), woodblock printing that became widespread in the Tang would remain the dominant printing type in China until the more advanced printing press from Europe became widely accepted and used in East Asia. Technology during the Tang period was built also upon the precedents of the past. The mechanical gear systems of Zhang Heng and Ma Jun gave the engineer and Buddhist monk Yi Xing great influence when he invented the world's first escapement mechanism. This was used alongside a clepsydra clock and waterwheel to power a rotating armillary sphere (to represent astronomical obseravation)

Women's social rights and social status during the Tang era were also incredibly liberal-minded for the medieval period. Women who were full-figured (even plump) were considered attractive by men, as men also enjoyed the presence of assertive, active women. For example, the foreign horse-riding sport of polo (from Persia) became a wildly popular trend amongst the Chinese elite, as women often played the sport (there are even glazed earthenware figurines from the time period showing women playing).

During the earlier Southern and Northern Dynasties (and perhaps even earlier) the drink of tea had been popular in southern China. Tea comes from the leaf buds of Camelia sinensis, native to southwestern China. Tea was viewed then as a beverage of tasteful pleasure and looked upon with pharmacological purpose as well. During the Tang Dynasty, tea was synonymous with everything sophisticated in society. The 8th century author Lu Yu (known as the Sage of Tea) even wrote a treatise on the art of drinking tea, called the Classic of Tea (Chájīng).[4] Although wrapping paper had been used in China since the 2nd century BC,[5] during the Tang Dynasty the Chinese were using wrapping paper as folded and sewn square bags to hold and preserve the flavor of tea leaves.[5] Indeed, paper found many other uses besides writing and wrapping during the Tang. Earlier, the first recorded use of toilet paper was made in 589 by the scholar official Yan Zhitui,[6] and in 851 (during the Tang) an Arab traveler commented on how the Chinese were not careful about cleanliness because they did not wash with water when going to the bathroom; instead, he said, they simply used paper to wipe with.[6]


[edit] Chang'an, the Tang Capital

Spring Outing of the Tang Court, by Zhang Xuan (713－755 AD)Although Chang'an was the site for the capital of the earlier Han and Jin dynasties, after subsequent destruction in warfare, it was the Sui Dynasty model that comprised the Tang era capital. The roughly-square dimensions of the city had six miles of outer walls running east to west, and more than five miles of outer walls running north to south. From the large Mingde Gates located mid-center of the main southern wall, a wide city avenue stretched from there all the way north to the central administrative city, behind which was the Chentian Gate of the royal palace, or Imperial City. Intersecting this were fourteen main streets running east to west, while eleven main streets ran north to south. These main intersecting roads formed 108 rectangular wards with walls and four gates each. The city was made famous for this checkerboard pattern of main roads with walled and gated districts, its layout even mentioned in one of Du Fu's poems. Of these 108 wards, two of them were designated as government-supervised markets, and other space reserved for temples, gardens, etc.[2]

The Tang capital was the largest city in the world at its time, the population of the city wards and its outlying suburbs reaching 2 million inhabitants.[2] The Tang capital was very cosmopolitan, with ethnicities of Persia, Central Asia, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Tibet, India, and many other places living within. Naturally, with this plethora of different ethnicities living in Chang'an, there were also many different practiced religions, such as Buddhism, Nestorian Christianity, Manichaeism, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, and Islam being practiced within.

The city of Kyoto in Japan was arranged in accordance with traditional geomancy following the model of Chang'an/Xi'an.


[edit] Administration and Politics
Following the example from the Sui, the Tang abandoned the Nine Ranks System in favor of a large civil service system. The Tang drafted learned and skilled students of Confucian studies who had passed standardized exams, and appointed them as state bureaucrats in the local, provincial, and central government (see Imperial Examination). These difficult exams were largely based on the Confucian classics, yet during the Tang Dynasty other subjects of study were made requirements for officials, even the recitation of poetry. The latter fell under the part of the exam known as the jinshi ('presented scholar examination'), which included also requirements for writing essay-style responses to questions on general and specific matters of governance and politics.[7]

These exams differed from the exams given by previous dynasties, in that they were open to all (male) citizens of all classes, not just those wealthy enough to receive a recommendation. Religion, namely Buddhism, also played a role in Tang politics. People bidding for office would have monks from Buddhist temples pray for them in public in return for cash donations or gifts if the person was to be elected.


[edit] Taxes and the Census

A Man Herding Horses, by Han Gan (706 - 783 AD)The Tang government attempted to create an accurate census of their empire's population size, mostly for effective taxation and matters of military conscription for each region. The early Tang government established the grain tax and cloth tax at a relatively low rate for each household. This was meant to encourage households to enroll for taxation and not avoid authorities, thus providing the government with the most accurate estimate possible. In the census of 609 AD, the population was tallied by efforts of the government at a size of 9 million households, or about 50 million people.[1] Even if a rather significant amount of people had avoided the registration process of the tax census, the population size during the Tang had not grown since the earlier Han Dynasty (the census of the year 2 AD being 59 million people).[1] Chinese population size would not dramatically increase until the Song Dynasty (960 - 1279 AD), where the population doubled to 100 million people due to extensive rice cultivation in central and southern China, coupled with rural farmers holding more abundant yields of food that they could easily provide the growing market.


[edit] Military and Foreign Policy

A foreign merchant of the Tang Dynasty, 7th centuryIn terms of foreign policy, the Chinese had to deal now with Turkic nomads, who were becoming the most dominant ethnic group in Central Asia. To handle and avoid any threats posed by the Turks, the Sui and Tang government repaired fortifications, received their trade and tribute missions, sent royal princesses off to marry Turkic clan leaders, stirred trouble and conflict amongst ethnic groups against the Turks, and recruited non-Chinese into the military. In the year 630 AD, the Tang government issued order for an ultimately successful military campaign in capturing areas of modern-day northern Shaanxi province and southern Mongolia from the Turks. After this military victory, Emperor Taizong won the title of Great Khan amongst the various Turks in the region who pledged their allegiance to him and the Chinese empire (with several thousand Turks traveling into China to live at Chang'an). While the Turks were settled in the Ordos region (former territory of the Xiongnu), the Tang government took on the military policy of dominating the central steppe. Like the earlier Han Dynasty, the Tang Dynasty (along with Turkic allies) conquered and subdued Central Asia during the 640s and 650s AD.[7] Like the emperors of the Sui Dynasty before him, Taizong established a military campaign in 644 against the Korean kingdom of Goguryeo. Allying with the Korean Silla Kingdom, the Chinese not only fought against Baekje and their Yamato Japanese allies, but also made a joint invasion with Silla against Goguryeo. Goguryeo defeated Tang Army lead by King Taijong in 644 really badly. King Taijong was wounded in the Battle of Ansi Fortress in Yodong. Some historians say that he was hurt by the Goguryeo general named Yang Manchun. Because of his wounds, he died after the war was lost. By 668 AD, the Kingdom of Goguryeo was no more. However, the Goguryeo Kingdom remained in the hands of Unified Silla, not Tang.

Some of the major kingdoms paying tribute to the Tang Dynasty included Kashmir, Neparo (Nepal), Vietnam, Japan, Korea, over nine kingdoms located in Amu Darya and Syr Darya valley in south of mid-Asia. Nomadic kingdoms addressed the Emperor of Tang China respectfully as Tian Kehan (Celestial Kaghan) (天可汗). The 7th to the 8th century was generally considered the zenith point of the Tang dynasty. Emperor Tang Xuanzong brought the Middle Kingdom to its golden age while the Silk Road thrived, with sway over Indochina in the south, and in the West China was the protector of Kashmir and master of the Pamirs.


[edit] Trade and the spread of culture
Through use of the land trade along the Silk Road and maritime trade by sail at sea, the Tang were able to gain many new technologies, cultural practices, rare luxury, and contemporary items. From the Middle East the Tang were able to acquire a new taste in fashion, favouring trousers over robes, new improvements on ceramics, and rare ingenious paintings. To the Middle East, the Islamic world coveted and purchased in bulk Chinese goods such as lacquer-wares and porcelain wares.


[edit] The Silk Road

A Tang Dynasty porcelain figurine of a horseUnder this period of the Pax Sinica, the Silk Road, the most important pre-modern trade route, reached its golden age, whereby Persian and Sogdian merchants benefited from the commerce between East and West. At the same time, the Chinese empire welcomed foreign cultures, making the Tang capital the most cosmopolitan area in the world. In addition, the maritime port city of Guangzhou in the south was also a home to many foreign merchants and travelers from abroad.

Although the Silk Road from China to the West was initially formulated during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han (141 BC - 87 BC) centuries before, it was reopened by the Tang in Zhengguan Year 13 (639 AD) when Huo Jun Ji conquered the West, and remained open for about 60 years. It was closed after the majority of vassals rebelled, blocking the road. About 20 years later, during Xuanzong's period, the Silk Road reopened when the Tang empire took over the Western Turk lands, once again reconnecting West and East for trade. After the An Shi Rebellion, the Tang Empire lost control over many of its outer western lands, which largely cut off China's direct access to the Silk Road. However, the Chinese still had maritime affairs.


[edit] Maritime Trade Abroad

A Tang Dynasty sculpture of a BodhisattvaAlthough the 5th century Buddhist monk Fa Xian sailed through the Indian Ocean and traveled to places of modern-day Sri Lanka and India, it was during the Tang Dynasty that Chinese maritime influence was extended to the Persian Gulf and Red Sea, into Persia, Mesopotamia (sailing up even the Euphrates River in modern-day Iraq), Arabia, Egypt, Aksum (Ethiopia), and Somalia in East Africa.[8] From the same Quraysh tribe of Muhammad, Sa'd ibn Abi-Waqqas sailed from Ethiopia to China during the reign of Emperor Gaozu. In the 630s AD, he traveled back to China with a copy of the Quran, establishing China's first mosque, the Mosque of Remembrance. To this day he is still buried in a Muslim cemetery at Guangzhou.

During the Tang Dynasty, thousands of foreigners came and lived in Guangzhou for trade and commercial ties with China, including Persians, Arabs, Hindu Indians, Malays, Jews and Nestorian Christians of the Near East, and many others (much like Chang'an). In 748 AD, the Buddhist monk Jian Zhen described Guangzhou as a bustling mercantile center where many large and impressive foreign ships came to dock. He wrote that "many big ships came from Borneo, Persia, Qunglun (Indonesia/Java)...with...spices, pearls, and jade piled up mountain high",[9] as written in the Yue Jue Shu (Lost Records of the State of Yue). After the Arabs burned and looted Guangzhou in 758 AD, the Tang government reacted by shutting the port down for roughly five decades. However, when the port reopened it continued to thrive. In 851 AD the Arab merchant Suleiman al-Tajir observed the manufacturing of Chinese porcelain and admired its transparent quality.[10] He also provided description on the mosque at Guangzhou, its granaries, its local government administration, some of its written records, the treatment of travellers, along with the use of ceramics, rice-wine, and tea.[11] However, in another bloody episode at Guangzhou in 878 AD, the Chinese rebel Huang Chao sacked the city, and purportedly slaughtered thousands of native Chinese, along with foreign Jews, Christians, and Muslims in the process. His rebellion was eventually suppressed within a decade.


Tang-era mural painting from DunhuangThe Tang government and Chinese merchants became interested in the possibility of actually by-passing dominant Arab seafaring merchants and middle-men traders of the Indian Ocean to gain access to thriving trade in the vast oceanic region. Beginning in 785 AD, the Chinese began to call regularly at Sufala on the East African coast in order to cut out Arab middle-men,[12] with various contemporary Chinese sources giving detailed descriptions of trade in Africa. In 863 the Chinese author Duan Chengshi provided detailed description about the slave trade, ivory trade, and ambergris trade in a country called Bobali, which historians point to the possibility of being Berbera in Somalia.[13] In Fustat (old Cairo), Egypt, the fame of Chinese ceramics there led to an enormous demand for Chinese goods, hence Chinese often traveled there, also in later periods such as Fatimid Egypt. From this time period, the Arab merchant Shulama once wrote of his admiration for Chinese seafaring junks, but noted that the draft was too deep for them to enter the Euphrates River, which forced them to land small boats for passengers and cargo.[14] Shulama also noted in his writing that Chinese ships were often very large, large enough to carry aboard 600 to 700 passengers each.

Chinese geographers such as Jia Dan wrote accurate descriptions of places far abroad. In his work written between 785 and 805 AD, he described the sea route going into the mouth of the Persian Gulf, and that the medieval Iranians (whom he called the people of the Luo-He-Yi country) had erected 'ornamental pillars' in the sea that acted as lighthouse beacons for ships that might go astray.[15] Confirming Jia's reports about lighthouses in the Persian Gulf, Arabic writers a century after Jia wrote of the same structures, writers such as al-Mas'udi and al-Muqaddasi. The Chinese also used pagoda towers as lighthouses, such as the Song Dynasty era Liuhe Pagoda of 1165, in Hangzhou. The Tang Dynasty Chinese diplomat Wang Xuan-ce traveled to Magadha (modern northeastern India) during the 7th century AD. Afterwards he wrote the book Zhang Tian-zhu Guo Tu (Illustrated Accounts of Central India), which included a wealth of geographical information.[16]


[edit] Decline

The Leshan Giant Buddha, 71 meters tall, construction began in 713, completed ninety years later in 803.The ultimate cause of the Tang dynasty's fall is as yet unknown, but a series of rebellions and military defeats in the eighth century AD highlighted the decline of the power available to its central government.

By the 740s AD, the Arabs of Khurasan - by then under Abbasid control - had established a presence in the Ferghana basin and in Sogdiana. At the Battle of Talas in 751 AD, mercenaries under the Chinese defected, which forced Tang commander Gao Xianzhi to retreat.

Soon afterward, the An Shi Rebellion 756 - 761 AD destroyed the prosperity that took years to be established. It left the dynasty weakened, and during its remaining years the Tang never regained its glory days of the 7th and 8th century. The Tang were eventually driven out of Central Asia, and imperial China did not regain ground in that region until the Mongol led regime during the Yuan Dynasty.

Another legacy of the An Shi rebellion were the gradual rise of regional military governors (jiedushi) which slowly came to challenge the power of the central government. The Tang government relied on these governors and their armies for protection and to suppress locals that would take up arms against the government. In return, the central government would acknowledge the rights of these governors to maintain their army, collect taxes and even to pass on their title. With the central government collapsing in authority over the various regions of the empire, it was recorded in 845 AD that bandits and river pirates in parties of 100 or more were largely unchecked by authorities while they plundered settlements along the Yangtze River.[17]

In 858 AD, enormous floods along the Grand Canal inundated vast tracts of land and terrain of the North China Plain, which drowned tens of thousands of people in the process.[17] The Chinese belief in the Mandate of Heaven granted to the ailing Tang was also challenged when natural calamities occurred, forcing many to believe the Heavens were displeased and that the Tang had lost their right to rule. Then in 873 AD a disastrous harvest shook the foundations of the empire, in some areas only half of all agricutlural produce being gathered, and tens of thousands faced famine and starvation.[17] In the earlier period of the Tang, the central government was able to meet crisis in the harvest, as it was recorded from 714-719 AD that the Tang government took assertive action in responding to natural disasters by extending the price regulation granary system throughout the country.[17] The central government was able then to build a large surplus stock of foods to meet danger of rising famine,[17], yet the Tang government in the 9th century was nearly helpless in dealing with any calamity.


[edit] Fall of the Tang dynasty

The Three Pagodas of Dali, Yunnan province, 9th and 10th centuries.Near the end of the Tang Dynasty, regional military governors took advantage of their increasing power and began to function more like independent regimes on their own right. At the same time, natural causes such as droughts and famine in addition to internal corruptions and incompetent emperors contributed to the rise of a series of rebellions. The Huang Chao rebellion of the 9th century, which resulted in the sacking of both Chang'an and Luoyang was the most destructive and took over 10 years to suppress. Although the rebellion was defeated by the Tang, it never really recovered from that crucial blow, weakening it for the future military powers to take over. A certain Zhu Wen (originally a salt smuggler) who had served under the rebel Huang had later surrendered to Tang forces, his military merit in betraying and defeating Huang's forces meaning rapid military promotions for him.[18]

In 907, after almost 300 years in power, the dynasty was ended when this military governor, Zhu Wen (known soon after as Taizu of Later Liang), deposed the last emperor of Tang and took the throne for himself. He established his Later Liang Dynasty, which thereby inaugurated the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period.

Although cast in a negative light by many for usurping power from the Tang, Zhu Wen turned out to be a skilled administrator. He was also responsible for the building of a large sea-wall, along with new walls and roads for the burgeoning city of Hangzhou, which would later become the capital of the Southern Song Dynasty.[19]


[edit] Historiography about the Tang
The first classic work about the Tang is the Jiu Tang Shu (Old Book of Tang). Liu Xu (887-946 CE) of the Later Jin dynasty redacted it during the last years of his life. This was edited into another history, (labelled Xin Tang shu, the New Book of Tang) to distinguish it, by Ouyang Xiu (1007-1072) and Song Qi (998-1061) of the Song dynasty (1044-1060). Both were based upon earlier annals, now lost. (c.f. Chronicles of the Chinese DynastiesPDF (25.9 KiB)). They are both among the Twenty-Four Histories.

One of the surviving sources of the Jiu Tang shu, primarily covering up to 756 CE, is the Tongdian, which Du You presented to the emperor in 801 CE.

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